based on natural observation rather than the earlier Medieval style of flatness. Giotto's figures remain slow moving, visually weighty, volumetric (sculpturesque) and are foreshortened. The figures convey individual emotions and are unique in their scientific naturalism.
Byzantine style (Italian - 6th c. > onwards) = expressed as "early scientific." An artistic tradition that originated in the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Europe), that denotes flatness of style, shallow space of figures, iconographic stylized paintings, frescoes, mosaics, etc. Eastern Orthodox and remains present in many countries today including Greece, Cyprus, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Russia.
Christ Pantocrator Deesis, mosaic in Hagia Sophia, architecture dating to 532 or 537 BCE : Pantocrator = The All Mighty
MOSAIC material and application - glass, ceramic, gold and ideas of illumination
p. 401 Giotto and his successors recognized that the visual world must be observed (and not stylized, as in Byzantine world that concentrated in the spiritual world) before it can be analyzed and understood. Giotto provided a NEW way of seeing that drew inspiration from the actual world.
FRESCO material and technique: a painting done rapidly in watercolor on wet plaster on a wall or ceiling, so that the colors penetrate the plaster and become fixed as it dries. Used in the ancient world of Rome through Medieval and into the Renaissance including Giotto, Masaccio, Michelangelo, and Da Vinci (The Last Supper)
Leonardo da Vinci The Last Supper, 1495–1498 (a well known Renaissance fresco)
Giotto Lamination in the Arena Chapel includes 38 framed FRESCOES depicting the lives of the Virign, her parents, and Jesus Christ, Padua, ITALY 1305 - 1306 COMPOSITION: the rocky slope behind the figures leads the viewer's eyes towards the heads of Mary and the dead Christ
GIOTTO Betrayal of Jesus in the Arena Chapel. Giotto was a pioneer in pursuing a naturalistic approach of representation instead of an abstracted approach of iconographically expressing spirituality. In the background of this fresco we can see how Giotto revives the Classical tradition of depicting some figures in the furthest part of the illusionary space.
GIOTTO de BONDONE, Interior of the Arena Chapel (Cappella Scrovegni) looking West, Padua,Northern ITALY 1305 - 1306
It is believe that Giotto may have been a part of the chapel's design
IN Sculpture
p. 402 Nicola Pisano (1258 - 1278) received training in Southern Italy, then at the height of economic power. He specialized in carving marble reliefs, ornamentation and pulpits. Some of his designs carried on from the Medieval traditions - although figures gained additional depth full space.
Nicola Pisano (active sculptor ca. 1258 - 1278) Annunciation, Nativity and Adoration of the Shepards, marble relief panel, Pisa, ITALY 1259 - 1260
p. 403 Giovanni Pisano (Nicola's son) ca. 1250 - 1320. Giovanni's version of the subject contrasts to his fathers because of his dynamic figures portrayed loosely and more ALIVE. Giovanni truly brings cold marble to LIFE naturalistically.
Giovanni Pisano (ca. 1258 - 1278), Annunciation, Nativity and Adoration of the Shepards, marble relief panel on the pulpit of Sant' Andrea, Pistoia, ITALY 1297 - 1301
p. 404 Mendicant Orders and Confraternities
1305 a French Pope, Clement V was elected. With the French pope's absence from Italy during the 14th c. it contributed to an increase in monastic orders (Augustinians, Carmelites, Servites, Franciscans, Dominicans, monastic orders). With this rise of monastic orders came the commission of building of monastic churches, and thus artworks.
p. 406 CIMABUE ( Cenni di Pepo ca. 1240 - 1302) was one of the first artists to break from the Byzantine style. Cimabue also pursued a new way of naturalism and observation.
The composition and gold - reveal the artist's reliance on Byzantine models and ideas of enlightenment.
Cimabue, Madonna Enthroned with Angels and Prophets from Florence ITALY c. 1280 - 1290. Tempera and gold leaf on wood -- 12' 7" x 7'4" (NOTE SCALE OF THE WORK!). Coming away from the Byzantine style, Cimabue depicted naturalism in the illusion of space - note Madonna's throne, while prophets and angels depict space merely by overlapping forms.
p. 406 14th Century ITALY broke up with city states - Venice, Florence, Lucca, Naples, Milan, Modena, Ferrara, Savoy and Siena. They uniquely had their own political districts but shared in the economic power of the period. Italy flourished.
BUBONIC plague / Black Death in the late 1340's that swept across Europe (originating in China) - was one of the most devastating natural disaster in European history, eliminating 25 - 50% of Europe's population. This devastating historical event had an enormous impact on art. It not only encouraged the building of hospitals, but also on the commission of devotional images.
Additional significant development was the wide spread use of vernacular literature. This dramatically affected Italy's intellectual and cultural life. Latin was the official language of the Church. However, the creation of an Italian vernacular literature (based in a dialect spoken in Florence) expanded interest in philosophy and literature.
DANTE Alighieri (1265 - 1321) author of The Divine Comedy, was greatly responsible for establishing vernacular literature.
Examples of illuminations below...
p. 406 RENAISSANCE HUMANISM
Vernacular literature was one important signs that changed Medieval Europe to move towards a new period, the Renaissance.
There was a growing concern with depicting the natural world.
Renaissance = rebirth of art and culture.
1. The Classical World (Ancient Greco-Roman) - recovery of the literature and art
2. Natural observation of the world (scientific interest)
3. Christianity - depicting the stories of Christianity followed by the development of humanism in the 15th and 16th centuries.
Humanism grows out of this rebirth was more a code of civil conduct, education, scholarly discipline. Concerned with human values. Ideally, humanists were not paid for their services, but rather grew in fame and hero status. Art work was created to illustrate and place individuals of high order into the 'history books' and on the walls. Clergymen, patrons, authors, scholars, architects and artists were the base of many of these visual works.
p. 407 GIOTTO art historians consider one of the first Renaissance painters because of his depiction of observation on the human figure.
Giotto represented the natural world in his works, which was a far stretch from Cimabue's more stylized, iconographic works.
We do however, recognize the influence of Cimabue on Giotto's works. Note the similarities and differences of the two Madonna's Enthroned (Cimabue's and Giotto's).
Giotto, Madonna Enthroned, Florence ITALY ca. 1310 tempera and gold leaf on wood
now at 10' 8" in height!
Giotto's Madonna is solid, she sits in an enormous throne that recedes into space illusionistcally. GIOTTO's Madonna marks the end of the Medieval painting in Italy and the beginning of a new naturalistic approach in art.
p. 409 CITY OF SIENA The Republics of Florence and Siena were the most powerful urban centers during the 14th c. $$ Follow the money $$ large sums of it was available in commissioning artworks. Numerous art guilds, commissions and contracts were organized during the 14th century. Guilds included apprentices (numbers of individuals) painting under one Master artist.
p. 411 DUCCIO di BUONINSEGNA (active 1278 -1318) was known to be on of the greatest masters of the Sienese school. Most famous work Maesta (Virgin Enthroned in Majesty 1308-1311), a commissioned work by the Church. When completed the entire city celebrated carrying the great altarpiece. The panels from base to top reach 13 feet.
"Holy Mother of God, be the cause of peace for Siena and of the life for Duccio, because he painted you thus."
Like Giotto before him, Duccio painted from natural observation. His figures were more relaxed and not stiff, more human, fully volumetric, with individualized faces of the four saints kneeling in the foreground.
Duccio Virgin and Child Enthroned with Saints - 1308 - 1311
13' in heighth and cause for city wide celebration, tempera and gold leaf on wood
READ notes on Duccio's Entry into Jerusalem and Betrayal of Jesus for additional background knowledge. p. 412
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p. 413
SIMONE MARTINI (ca. 1285 - 1344)
He was Duccio's successor in Siena.
His work was attributed in establishing the beginnings of the International Style that swept across Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries. The International Style combined Gothic style to the style being produced in Siena, characteristics: having brilliant colors, lavish costumes, intricate ornamentation, themes involving extravagant processions - the over the top bling of materials > portraying a great deal of wealth.
Simone Martini and Lippo Memmi
Annunciation altarpiece from Siena Cathedral, 1333 -- features elegant shapes in volume, weightless figures within a flat spatial field (although gold leafed).
Detail of Martini's altarpiece in Siena Cathedral
PIETRO LORENZETTI (active 1320 - 1348)
Another of Duccio's students
Tributed greatly to the procession of pictorial realism in Siena. The illustration of architectural details and space was paid attention to. Great mass in the figures inside a deep illustrated space.
The altar piece is in three parts = triptych
Below: Pietro Lornezetti's Birth of the Virgin, from the alter of Siena Cathedral, ITALY, 1342. Tempera on wood. 6' 1" x 5' 11"
ANDREA PISANO (1290 - 1348), Southern doors of the Baptistery of San Giovanni cathedral in Florence ITALY 1330 - 1336 gilded bronze
The cast bronze and gold gilded doors took six years to complete in 1336. Consist of 28 panels with 20 top panels depicting the life of St. John the Baptist. The eight lower panels depict the eight virtues of hope, faith, charity, humility, fortitude, temperance, justice and prudence.
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Chapter 15
LATE MEDIEVAL & EARLY RENAISSANCE in NORTHERN EUROPE
p. 423
> Flemish life brings devotional paintings into the home.
> Private devotional imagery integrating religious art into familiar domestic secular settings.
- Campin decides on a domestic setting rather than a palace like location
- Mary is in a living room, not a bed chamber
- Mary is without halo, possibly a depiction of her humanism
- The room is clean and tidy defines Mary as a diligent house proud female
- Mary is not sitting on the bench but rather on the floor, to possibly depict her humility
- She is absorbed in a book that she holds in a white cloth - keeping it clean
- She is wearing a red dress (not blue)
- Notice the light on her knee that configures a star
- Angel Gabriel is with her
- 16 sided table alludes to the sixteen main Hebrew prophets
- On the table there is an open book and a scroll - the act of reading a religious work, the scroll denotes Mary as a learned and devout female
- Pitcher and lily on the table
- The lily = purity of Mary
“…Mary is the violet of humility, the lily of chastity, the rose of charity and the glory and splendour of the heavens…”
- A candle is extinguished on the table as the holy spirit enters the window on the left wall
- Male and female in the left panel are portraits of patron donors, Peter Inghelbrecht & wife Margarete Scrynmakers
- "Inghelbrecht" means "angel bringer" - a reference to the Annunciation
- "Scrynmakers" means "cabinet - or - shrine makers" referencing Joseph's workshop in the right panel
- The cloistered garden represents Mary's virginity... there is a guard at the gate
15th Century Developments
p. 424
> Northern Europe Rome and Avignon were the two competing popes (Italy and France)
> One Hundred Year War (1337 - 1453) = 116 Year War due to the long struggle between England and France over the succession over the French throne - leaving France crippled economically
> The Late Gothic style of art -- International Style
> Altarpieces that had folding (moveable) wings - triptychs and diptychs
> Development of portraiture in Flanders
> The Duchy of Burgundy (territory of Duke and Duchess) powerful northern rulers - enormous territory that stretched from Rhone River to the North Sea. Refer to map on p. 424
> Despite conflict and unrest brought about a new economic system and network == the early stages of European capitalism - trade was wide, new credit and exchange of goods was strong
> The production of art thrived in Northern Europe under royal, church and private patronage
> oil based pigments becomes a leading medium allowed for the development of glazing on wooden panels and thus, well defined, crisp and sharply focused illusionistic objects in painted contexts
> Flemish painters establish portraiture as a major art form
> the advancement of printmaking in Germany becomes a major art form - thus allowing for multiples of imagery and texts (made from wood blocks) to be created and go into the hands of the masses
> Johannes Gutenberg invents moveable type and prints the first Bibles on a letterpress 1450
> The Limbourg brothers expand manuscripts to describe a new way of space and TIME in their full page calendar illuminations that show cased seasonal, naturalistic and political settings
p.425
CLAUS SLUTER (ca.1340 - 1406) sculptor of Dutch origin
The Well of Moses a symbolic fountain of life made for the Duke of Burgundy in Dijon FRANCE (1395-1406) limestone, painted and gilded 6' tall figures
-- limestone, painted, fully gestural and natural, polychromed
Map of Flanders - to the west, France, the east The Holy Roman Empire (now Germany)
> 14th and 15th centuries, the production of altarpieces was a major art form -- they served as symbolic images for the Catholic Mass; the ritual of the Holy Eucharist (a repetitive action in Christianity in the memory of Christ and the word of God).
It's not surprising many altarpieces took on both as paintings and sculpture as public pieces of artistic works.
> Polyptychs: are hinged multi paneled paintings, and/or reliefs. The clergy were thus able to close the winged panels onto the central panel. Artists decorated both the exterior and interior of these altarpieces. The multi image format provided the opportunity to construct complex narratives through the sequence of images.
p. 424
In Flanders, 1425
Robert Campin
Jan van Eyck
Rogier van der Weyden
popularize the use of oil paints in paintings bringing the exact surface appearance to objects, humans and landscape. Flemish painters establish portraiture as a major art form.
p. 426
Jan van Eyck (1390 - 1441) Flemish / Netherlandish painter active in Bruges. He is often considered one of the founders of Early Netherlandish painting school and one of the most significant representatives of Northern Renaissance art.
Jan van Eyck Man in a Red Turban 1433
oil on wood 13" x 10"
Is possibly the first Western painted portrait where the sitter looks
directly out at the viewer
The inscribed wooden frame states he painted it on October 21, 1433
and the inclusion of As I can suggests the painting is a self portrait
Van Eyck and other Flemish painters constructed their paintings by building up layers of a translucent oil medium color (glazes) from drawings on a gessoed (prepared substrate) wood panel. Oil medium provided artists with richer color, objects in incredible focus and surfaces that seemed to shimmer and glow. Northern artists used oak, lime, beech, chestnut, cherry, silver fir as the wood for their substrates.
Linen canvases (stretch cloth canvases) didn't become popular until the 16th c. Art historical evidences points to the attitude towards cloth substrates as not being used as often as artists did not trust the permanency for their early, devout images.
Some artists back to the 8th century used oil paint, however in the 15th c. it became a widespread medium.
Refer to p. 427 differences between egg tempera painting and oil painting.
Van Eyck achieved international fame with the Ghent Altarpiece 1432. He was the court painter of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy who stationed residence in Brugges.
Jan van Eyck's The Ghent Altarpiece, 1432 -- note symbolism on p. 428 - 429 stands at 11' 5" x 15' 1", oil on wood. An enormous work that includes portraits of the donors.
p. 429
Emerging capitalism led to Flanders as a prosperous urban center - especially in Brugges and Antwerp, followed by Amsterdam. $$ contributed to a growing interest in secular art works.
Giovanni Arnolfini and His Wife, 1434 (van Eyck) - depicts a financier and his wife in their home with religious undertones. Arnolfini takes the hand of his second wife. Almost all the objects in it convey symbolic meaning.
Symbolism:
Clogs - slippers - indicate this event is taking place on holy ground.
Dog - fidelity
Behind the red curtain - the bed ' the curtains of the marriage bed have been opened'
Bedpost's finial - a tiny statue of Saint Margaret Patron Saint of childbirth
From the finial, a whisk broom hangs = domesticity
The wife's green dress - symbolic color
The style makes her look like as if she were pregnant, but this was the style of the times
The oranges on the chest (imported fruit = $$ and commerce) as well as fertility
The chandelier snuffed candles, one remains burning
The empty candle stick in the window --- now out, suggests "burning the candle at both ends"
The convex mirror reflects back the entire room - symbolic of all seeing God
The 12 medallions set in the frame - depict scenes from the Passion of Christ
The signature of Jan van Eyck is on the wall above the mirror -- stating his presence as a witness to this holy coupling
His reflection painted in the mirror
p. 430
Contemporary scholars see the area now as a reception area, not a bedroom.
p. 431
Frames in the 15th and 16th century included elaborate frames -- and often were incredibly symbolic. Refer to van Eyck's Man in a Red Turban. Sometimes the carved frames that were gilded (adding expense) cost half as much as the paintings they held.
Rogier van der Weyden (ca. 1400 - 1464)
Was an assistant of Robert Campin, but quickly rivaled van Eyck's reputation
The question is WHY?
Rogier van der Weyden, Deposition center panel of a triptych, ca. 1435 oil on wood, 7' x 8' from BELGIUM, now in the Museo del Prado, Madrid, SPAIN
- His figures full of human action and drama in highly dynamic compositions in oil on wooden panels
- Full contrast in high hue saturation and value
- The figures stand in a compressed shallow space against what seems as an architectural wall that is gilded gold (remember, Campin's and van Eyck's stress linear perspective)
- The "cross bow" wooden 'tree' often was incorporated into his paintings is symbolic to the guild's symbol
- He was able to express maximum action within a very shallow space
- His sense of drawing was sharp and crisp, everything in full focus almost to a 'hyper sensibility' of objects and figures
- Notice how Mary is sensing similar pain as her son as he is removed from the crucifix 'tree'
- van der Weyden can depict the human emotion of agony and sorrow like NEVER BEFORE!
p. 432 "Few painters have equaled van der Weyden in rendering passionate sorrow as it vibrates through a figure or distorts a tearstained face."
The Guilds in Flanders controlled all artistic production, as they did in Italy 14th and 15th century
- To pursue any craft (painting or sculpture) a male had to belong to a specific guild
- How did they gain entrance?
- The path was indeed a long one, beginning with a father introducing his son to the fundamental techniques of the craft
- The son would be called a "journeyman"
- Eventually as the son succeeded in his tutorials, he would eventually be able to take a test to enter the guild
- Fees were high - but non the less, an artist had to become a guild member in order to gain commissions and thus $$
- Sometimes men would seek admission into a guild would marry the widow of a member
- A woman could inherit her husband's workshop - but could not run it!
Gender bias was the social moral of the time
- Women had few opportunities as artists, although some were able to establish their admittance into the guilds in Brugges historical records have illustrated, thus showing their artistic skill as well as their tenacity in professional accomplishment
- From the 16th century towards the early 20th century, cultural moral constraints have kept women out of the academic training in figurative subject matter (anatomical nude rendering of the male subject and cadaver study)
Catrina van Hemessen (16th century Flemish Renaissance painter) gained training from her father and husband
Self-Portrait is a small painting executed in oil on oak in 1548 (16th century) by the Flemish Renaissance artist Caterina van Hemessen when she was 20 years old.
By the mid-15th century, Flemish art had achieved highest regard throughout Europe
p. 435
Hugo van der Goes (1440 - 1482) who was the dean of the guild of Ghent from 1468 - 1475 -- a privately commissioned work by the artist took a triptych work to Florence Italy > The Portinari Altarpiece - van der Goes paints the patron, Portinari (an Italian shipowner) on the wings altarpiece with his own family and their patron saints.
Hugo van der Goes, Portinari Altarpiece (open triptych) ca. 1476 tempera and oil on wood, center panel 8'3" x 10' - commissioned by Portinari, a wealthy Italian shipowner. Note patrons' portraits on the triptych's wings, the scale of figures in regards to hierarchy, symbolism throughout.
Hans Memling (ca. 1430 - 1494)
Was Hugo van der Goes contemporary
He also was recognized internationally, especially in Italy
Memling combined portraiture with religious subject matter -
the Mayor of Brugges, Maartin van Nieuwnehove in 1497
Hans Memling, diptych of Maartin van Nieuwenhove, 1487
oil on wood, each panel 1' x 1' -- secular devotional painting
Memling sets the Madonna beside her patron and features a stained glass window.
The Madonna and child have honored the patron Nieuwenhoven by coming for a visit to the mayor's home!
Hans Memling, diptych of Maartin van Nieuwenhove, 1487
oil on wood, each panel 1' x 1' -- secular devotional painting
The stained glass adjacent to the Madonna illustrates Nieuwenhove's family coat of arms... through the window we can identify the precise home of Niewvenhove in Brugges, Belgium.
Note the painting alongside the 'outside' of the painting; Madonna's cloak rests upon it.
FRANCE
p. 438
In contrast to the prosperity and economic boom in Flanders, France in the 15th century was under political instability because of the Hundred Years' War lasting 116 years really!
Because of the country's weakness of the kings and government officials, gave rise to a group of duchies each having significant power and with it came control. These included the duchy of Burgundy, Bourbon, Nemours and Berry. Each being important art patrons to spread and immortalize their wealth and high command.
Manuscript Painting
Produced beautiful manuscript paintings, a new concept of the time, and with it a NEW PRESENTATION OF SPACE and TIME
The 3 Limbourg Brothers - early 15th century manuscript illuminators (to illuminate -- to give knowledge to, as well as the illumination and illustration of a concept)
The Limbourg brothers, or in Dutch Gebroeders van Limburg (Herman, Paul, and Johan; ca. 1385 – 1416), were famous Dutch miniature painters from the city of Nijmegen. Studied in Netherlands and over to Paris France, became the illuminators of the Duke de Berry, Burgundy, and worked in the style known as International Gothic in the 15th century.
- The brothers were trained in the Netherlands then moved to Paris France no later than 1402
- They worked for the King of France
- Limbourg Brothers produced the Book of Hours, was a book (codex form) that was used to recite prayers
- Such books became favorites possessions of European aristocrats -- the books were functional as prayer books, as well as being able to devoutly hold the Word of God
- Les Tres Riches Heures are the Limbourg's most famous works
- Each page represents the 12 months in terms of the seasonal tasks, alternating with scenes of nobility
- This illuminated manuscript reinforces the Duke of Berry as a devout (and rich) man, sophisticated art patron, powerful leader
- Within the illuminations, genre painting now fully became prominent with religious subject matter
p. 442
GRAPHIC ARTS and moveable type - a new age bloomed in the 15th century because of technology
Contemporary wood block showing the print being pulled
Woodcuts, although used in China centuries before, did not become widespread in Europe until the 15th century
Johannes GUTENBERG (ca. 1400-1468) became the inventor of moveable type around 1450
The method of printing as an art form, provided new challenges to artists.
- Woodcuts -- a carved wooden substrate where ink falls into the groves is then printed (in reverse) allowing for multiples to be created
- The UNIQUE art form now became available to the masses!
- A rise in literacy and improved economic stability allowed for the production of illustrated book (religious, secular and political themes) were being made on a grand scale!!
- Thus, giving rise to information on a grand scale throughout Europe!
